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3 5 Divided By 5

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Calendar used in ancient Egypt before 22 BC

The aboriginal Egyptian agenda – a ceremonious calendar – was a solar calendar with a 365-day year. The year consisted of three seasons of 120 days each, plus an intercalary calendar month of 5 epagomenal days treated as outside of the twelvemonth proper. Each season was divided into iv months of xxx days. These twelve months were initially numbered within each flavor but came to also be known past the names of their primary festivals. Each month was divided into 3 10-solar day periods known as decans or decades. It has been suggested that during the Nineteenth Dynasty and the Twentieth Dynasty the last two days of each decan were usually treated every bit a kind of weekend for the royal craftsmen, with royal artisans complimentary from work.[ii]

Because this calendrical year was nigh a quarter of a 24-hour interval shorter than the solar year, the Egyptian calendar lost most one mean solar day every four years relative to the Gregorian calendar. Information technology is therefore sometimes referred to as the wandering year (Latin: annus vagus), as its months rotated about one 24-hour interval through the solar year every iv years. Ptolemy 3'due south Canopus Decree attempted to correct this through the introduction of a 6th epagomenal day every four years but the proposal was resisted by the Egyptian priests and people and abased until the establishment of the Alexandrian or Coptic calendar by Augustus. The introduction of a leap twenty-four hour period to the Egyptian calendar made information technology equivalent to the reformed Julian calendar, although by extension it continues to diverge from the Gregorian calendar at the turn of most centuries.

This civil calendar ran concurrently with an Egyptian lunar agenda which was used for some religious rituals and festivals. Some Egyptologists take described information technology as lunisolar, with an intercalary month supposedly added every two or three years to maintain its consistency with the solar year, simply no show of such intercalation before the 4th century BC has withal been discovered.

History [edit]

Prehistory [edit]

Setting a calendar by the Nile inundation would be about equally vague a business equally if we gear up our calendar by the render of the Spring violets.

—H.E. Winlock[three]

The Nile flood at Cairo c.  1830.

Current agreement of the earliest development of the Egyptian calendar remains speculative. A tablet from the reign of the Commencement Dynasty pharaoh Djer (c.  3000 BC) was in one case thought to indicate that the Egyptians had already established a link between the heliacal rising of Sirius (Ancient Egyptian: Spdt or Sopdet, "Triangle"; Greek: Σῶθις , Sôthis) and the starting time of their year, simply more than recent analysis has questioned whether the tablet's moving-picture show refers to Sirius at all.[4] Similarly, based on the Palermo Stone, Alexander Scharff proposed that the Old Kingdom observed a 320-day yr, simply his theory has non been widely accepted.[five] Some evidence suggests the early ceremonious calendar had 360 days,[6] although information technology might simply reverberate the unusual status of the five epagomenal days as days "added on" to the proper twelvemonth.

With its interior effectively rainless for thousands of years,[7] aboriginal Egypt was "a gift of the river" Nile,[8] whose almanac flooding organized the natural year into three broad natural seasons known to the Egyptians every bit:[9] [10] [11]

  1. Inundation or Flood (Ancient Egyptian: Ꜣḫt, sometimes anglicized as Akhet): roughly from September to January.
  2. Emergence or Winter ( Prt , sometimes anglicized every bit Peret): roughly from Jan to May.
  3. Low Water or Harvest or Summertime ( Šmw , sometimes anglicized equally Shemu): roughly from May to September.[ix]

As early as the reign of Djer (c.  3000 BC, Dynasty I), yearly records were being kept of the flood's high-water marking.[12] Otto Eastward. Neugebauer noted that a 365-day year can be established by averaging a few decades of accurate observations of the Nile inundation without any need for astronomical observations,[13] although the great irregularity of the inundation from year to year[a] and the difficulty of maintaining a sufficiently accurate Nilometer and tape in prehistoric Arab republic of egypt has caused other scholars to doubt that it formed the basis for the Egyptian calendar.[3] [half dozen] [fifteen]
Note that the names of the 3 natural seasons were incorporated into the Civil calendar year (see below), but every bit this calendar year is a wandering yr, the seasons of this calendar slowly rotate through the natural solar yr, meaning that Ceremonious season Akhet/Inundation but occasionally coincided with the Nile inundation.

Lunar calendar [edit]

A modern lunar calendar for 2017

The Egyptians appear to accept used a purely lunar calendar prior to the institution of the solar civil calendar[16] [17] in which each month began on the forenoon when the waning crescent moon could no longer be seen.[15] Until the closing of Egypt's polytheist temples under the Byzantines, the lunar calendar continued to exist used as the liturgical year of various cults.[17] The lunar calendar divided the month into four weeks, reflecting each quarter of the lunar phases.[xviii] Considering the exact fourth dimension of morning considered to begin the Egyptian day remains uncertain[19] and there is no evidence that whatsoever method other than observation was used to determine the ancestry of the lunar months prior to the 4th century BC,[xx] there is no certain way to reconstruct exact dates in the lunar calendar from its known dates.[19] The difference between beginning the day at the first light of dawn or at sunrise accounts for an 11–14 year shift in dated observations of the lunar cycle.[21] It remains unknown how the Egyptians dealt with obscurement past clouds when they occurred and the best current algorithms have been shown to differ from actual observation of the waning crescent moon in nearly one-in-five cases.[19]

Parker and others take argued for its development into an observational and and so calculated lunisolar calendar[22] which used a 30 24-hour interval intercalary calendar month every 2 to three years to arrange the lunar yr's loss of virtually 11 days a year relative to the solar year and to maintain the placement of the heliacal rise of Sirius inside its twelfth calendar month.[16] No show for such a calendar month, however, exists in the nowadays historical record.[23]

Temple Month
Ꜣbd n ḥwt-nṯr [24]
Egyptian hieroglyphs

A second lunar agenda is attested by a demotic astronomical papyrus[25] dating to sometime after 144 AD which outlines a lunisolar agenda operating in accordance with the Egyptian civil agenda co-ordinate to a 25 yr wheel.[26] The calendar seems to show its calendar month beginning with the starting time visibility of the waxing crescent moon, but Parker displayed an error in the cycle of about a day in 500 years,[27] using information technology to show the bicycle was developed to stand for with the new moon around 357BC.[28] This date places it prior to the Ptolemaic catamenia and within the native Egyptian Dynasty XXX. Arab republic of egypt's 1st Persian occupation, however, seems probable to have been its inspiration.[29] This lunisolar calendar'southward calculations apparently continued to be used without correction into the Roman period, even when they no longer precisely matched the appreciable lunar phases.[30]

The days of the lunar calendar month — known to the Egyptians every bit a "temple calendar month"[24] — were individually named and historic every bit stages in the life of the moon god, variously Thoth in the Centre Kingdom or Khonsu in the Ptolemaic era: "He ... is conceived ... on Psḏntyw; he is built-in on Ꜣbd; he grows old afterward Smdt".[31]

Days of the lunar calendar month [31] [b]
Day Name
Egyptian Pregnant (if known)
1
N10 G4 W3
[c] 		Psḏtyw [d] Literal meaning unknown but possibly related to the Ennead; the mean solar day of the New Moon.
ii [due east] Tp Ꜣbd
Ꜣbd 		"Beginning the Month" or "The Month"; the beginning of the Crescent Moon.
iii Mspr "Inflow"
iv Prt Sm "The Going Along of the Sm", a kind of priest
five
Aa1
X1 		D2
Z1 		R2 W3
I͗ḫt Ḥr Ḫꜣwt "Offerings upon the Altar"
half-dozen
S29 T22 N35
X1 		Z2
Z2 		W3
[f] 		Snt "The Sixth"
7 [thou] Dnı͗t "Partial"; the first-quarter day.
8 Tp Unknown
ix [h] Kꜣp Unknown
x Sı͗f Unknown
11 Stt Unknown
12
N31
D53 		N31
D53 		W3
Unknown "Fractional" the 2nd-quarter day.
13
D12 D12 U1 A59 W3
[i] 		Mꜣꜣ Sṯy Unknown
14
S32 G1 Z7 W3
Sı͗ꜣw Unknown
xv
D1 N13
[j] 		Smdt
Tp Smdt 		Literal significant uncertain; the mean solar day of the Total Moon.
xvi
F31 Q3
D21 		Z1 Z1
W24 		W3
Mspr Sn Nw
Ḥbs Tp [49] 		"2d Inflow"
"Covering the Head"
17
S32 G1 Z7 W3
Sı͗ꜣw 2d Quarter Mean solar day
18
M17 V28 N12 W3
[k] 		I͗ꜥḥ "Day of the Moon"
19 Sḏm Mdwf Unknown
20 Stp Unknown
21 [l] Ꜥprw Unknown
22 Pḥ Spdt Unknown
23
D46
N35 		M17 X1
V11 		W3
Dnı͗t "Fractional"; the 3rd-quarter twenty-four hours.
24 [chiliad] Knḥw Unknown
25 Stt Unknown
26
O1
D21 		X1
W3
Prt "The Going Forth"
27
G43 N37 D58 W3
[n] 		Wšb Unknown
28 Ḥb Sd Nwt "The Jubilee of Nut"
29
P6 A47 W3
Ꜥḥꜥ Unknown
xxx
O1
D21 		X1
D54 		O34
R12
X1 Z4 		W3
[o] 		Prt Mn "The Going Along of Min"

Civil agenda [edit]

The ceremonious calendar was established at some early engagement in or before the Old Kingdom, with probable evidence of its utilise early in the reign of Shepseskaf (c.  2510 BC, Dynasty Iv) and certain testament during the reign of Neferirkare (mid-25th centuryBC, Dynasty 5).[54] It was probably based upon astronomical observations of Sirius[xv] whose reappearance in the sky closely corresponded to the boilerplate onset of the Nile overflowing through the 5th and fourth millennium BC.[14] [p] A recent development is the discovery that the thirty-day calendar month of the Mesopotamian calendar dates as late as the Jemdet Nasr Period (late 4th-millenniumBC),[56] a time Egyptian culture was borrowing various objects and cultural features from the Fertile Crescent, leaving open the possibility that the primary features of the calendar were borrowed in i management or the other besides.[57]

The civil year comprised exactly 365 days,[q] divided into 12 months of 30 days each and an intercalary month of five days,[59] were celebrated as the birthdays of the gods Osiris, Horus, Ready, Isis, and Nephthys.[threescore] The regular months were grouped into Egypt's three seasons,[59] which gave them their original names,[61] and divided into three 10-twenty-four hour period periods known as decans or decades. In later sources, these were distinguished as "first", "middle", and "last".[62] Information technology has been suggested that during the Nineteenth Dynasty and the Twentieth Dynasty the terminal two days of each decan were unremarkably treated as a kind of weekend for the purple craftsmen, with royal artisans gratis from work.[63] Dates were typically expressed in a YMD format, with a pharaoh's regnal year followed by the calendar month followed by the day of the month.[64] For instance, the New Year occurred on I Akhet 1.

Lord of Years
Nb Rnpt
Egyptian hieroglyphs

The importance of the calendar to Egyptian religion is reflected in the apply of the championship "Lord of Years" ( Nb Rnpt )[65] for its diverse creator gods.[66] Fourth dimension was also considered an integral aspect of Maat,[66] the catholic order which opposed anarchy, lies, and violence.

The civil agenda was apparently established in a twelvemonth when Sirius rose on its New year's day (I Akhet 1) only, considering of its lack of leap years, it began to slowly cycle backwards through the solar year. Sirius itself, about forty° below the ecliptic, follows a Sothic year almost exactly matching that of the Sun, with its reappearance at present occurring at the breadth of Cairo (aboriginal Heliopolis and Memphis) on nineteenJuly (Julian), but two or three days subsequently than its occurrence in early antiquity.[59] [67]

Following Censorinus[68] and Meyer,[69] the standard understanding was that, iv years from the calendar's inception, Sirius would have no longer reappeared on the Egyptian New Year but on the next solar day (I Akhet 2); iv years later on, information technology would have reappeared on the day afterwards that; and and then on through the entire calendar until its rise finally returned to I Akhet 1 1460 years subsequently the agenda'south inception,[68] [r] an event known as "apocatastasis".[70] Attributable to the upshot's farthermost regularity, Egyptian recordings of the calendrical date of the rise of Sirius accept been used by Egyptologists to fix its agenda and other events dated to it, at least to the level of the four-Egyptian-year periods which share the aforementioned date for Sirius's return, known as "tetraëterides" or "quadrennia".[lxx] For case, an business relationship that Sothis rose on 3 Peret 1—the 181st twenty-four hours of the year—should show that somewhere 720, 721, 722, or 723 years take passed since the concluding apocatastasis.[68] Following such a scheme, the record of Sirius rising on Two Shemu 1 in 239BC implies apocatastases on 1319 and 2779BC ±3 years.[21] [s] Censorinus'southward placement of an apocatastasis on 21July Advertisement139[t] permitted the calculation of its predecessors to 1322, 2782, and 4242BC.[72] [ failed verification ] The last is sometimes described as "the first exactly dated yr in history"[73] just, since the agenda is attested earlier Dynasty XVIII and the final date is now known to far predate early Egyptian civilization, information technology is typically credited to Dynasty II around the middle date.[74] [u]

Heliacal ascension of Sirius at Heliopolis [5]
Year Date
Egyptian[77] Julian[78] Gregorian[79]
3500BC III Peret iii July xvi June 18
3000BC 3 Shemu viii July xvi June 22
2500BC Three Akhet eight July sixteen June 26
2000BC 3 Peret xiv July 17 June 30
1500BC III Shemu 19 July 17 July 4
kBC III Akhet 19 July 17 July 8
  500BC Iii Peret 25 July 18 July xiii
AD1 3 Shemu 30 July 18 July 16
Advertising500 Iv Akhet 2 July 20 July 22

The classic understanding of the Sothic cycle relies, nevertheless, on several potentially erroneous assumptions. Following Scaliger,[80] Censorinus's date is usually emended to twentyJuly[west] but ancient regime requite a variety of 'fixed' dates for the rise of Sirius.[x] His use of the year 139 seems questionable,[83] as 136 seems to accept been the start of the tetraëteris[84] and the later date chosen to flatter the birthday of Censorinus's patron.[85] Perfect observation of Sirius'south actual behavior during the cycle—including its minor shift relative to the solar year—would produce a catamenia of 1457 years; observational difficulties produce a further margin of error of virtually two decades.[72] Although it is sure the Egyptian twenty-four hour period began in the morning, another four years are shifted depending on whether the precise starting time occurred at the first light of dawn or at sunrise.[21] It has been noted that at that place is no recognition in surviving records that Sirius'southward minor irregularities sometimes produce a triëteris or penteteris (3- or v-year periods of understanding with an Egyptian appointment) rather than the usual four-twelvemonth periods and, given that the expected discrepancy is no more than eight years in 1460, the bike may have been applied schematically[lxx] [86] co-ordinate to the ceremonious years past Egyptians and the Julian year past the Greeks and Romans.[68] The occurrence of the apocatastasis in the 2nd millennium BC so close to the cracking political and sun-based religious reforms of Amenhotep IV/Akhenaton also leaves open the possibility that the cycle's strict application was occasionally subject to political interference.[87] The record and celebration of Sirius'due south rising would also vary past several days (equating to decades of the wheel) in eras when the official site of observation was moved from nigh Cairo.[y] The return of Sirius to the night sky varies by about a 24-hour interval per degree of breadth, causing information technology to be seen 8–10 days before at Aswan than at Alexandria,[89] a divergence which causes Rolf Krauss to propose dating much of Egyptian history decades later on than the present consensus.

Ptolemaic agenda [edit]

Following Alexander the Bang-up'south conquest of the Persian Empire, the Macedonian Ptolemaic Dynasty came to power in Egypt, standing to use its native calendars with Hellenized names. In 238 BC, Ptolemy 3'south Canopus Prescript ordered that every 4th year should incorporate a sixth day in its intercalary calendar month,[90] honoring him and his wife every bit gods equivalent to the children of Nut. The reform was resisted by the Egyptian priests and people and was abased.

Coptic calendar [edit]

Egyptian scholars were involved with the establishment of Julius Caesar's reform of the Roman calendar, although the Roman priests initially misapplied its formula and—by counting inclusively—added spring days every three years instead of every four. The mistake was corrected by Augustus through omitting leap years for a number of cycles until Advertizementiv. As the personal ruler of Egypt, he also imposed a reform of its calendar in 26 or 25BC, possibly to represent with the beginning of a new Callipic bicycle, with the beginning leap day occurring on 6 Epag. in the year 22BC. This "Alexandrian calendar" corresponds almost exactly to the Julian, causing 1Thoth to remain at 29August except during the year before a Julian leap year, when information technology occurs on 30August instead. The calendars so resume their correspondence later on 4Phamenoth/ 29February of the next year.[91]

Months [edit]

For much of Egyptian history, the months were not referred to by individual names, but were rather numbered within the three seasons.[61] Equally early as the Eye Kingdom, all the same, each month had its ain name. These finally evolved into the New Kingdom months, which in turn gave ascension to the Hellenized names that were used for chronology past Ptolemy in his Almagest and by others. Copernicus constructed his tables for the motion of the planets based on the Egyptian year because of its mathematical regularity. A convention of modern Egyptologists is to number the months consecutively using Roman numerals.

A persistent problem of Egyptology has been that the festivals which requite their names to the months occur in the next month. Alan Gardiner proposed that an original calendar governed by the priests of Ra was supplanted by an improvement adult by the partisans of Thoth. Parker continued the discrepancy to his theories apropos the lunar agenda. Sethe, Weill, and Clagett proposed that the names expressed the idea that each month culminated in the festival beginning the next.[92]

Months
Egyptological English[64] Egyptian Greek[93] Coptic
Seasonal[64] Heart Kingdom New Kingdom
I I Akhet
Thoth		 1st Month of Alluvion
1 Ꜣḫt 		Tḫy Ḏḥwtyt Θωθ Thōth Ⲑⲱⲟⲩⲧ Tôut
Two Ii Akhet
Phaophi		 second Month of Flood
ii Ꜣḫt 		Mnht PꜢ n-ip.t Φαωφί [z] Phaōphí Ⲡⲁⲱⲡⲉ Baôba
III III Akhet
Athyr		 third Month of Flood
three Ꜣḫt 		Ḥwt-ḥwr Ḥwt-ḥwr Ἀθύρ Athúr Ϩⲁⲑⲱⲣ Hatûr
IV IV Akhet
Choiak		 4th Calendar month of Inundation
4 Ꜣḫt 		KꜢ-ḥr-KꜢ KꜢ-ḥr-KꜢ Χοιάκ [aa] Khoiák Ⲕⲟⲓⲁⲕ
Ⲕⲓⲁϩⲕ 		Koiak
Kiahk
Five I Peret
Tybi		 1st Month of Growth
ane Prt 		Sf-Bdt TꜢ-ꜥb Τυβί [ab] Tubí Ⲧⲱⲃⲓ Tôbi
VI II Peret
Mechir		 second Month of Growth
two Prt 		Rḫ Wr Mḫyr Μεχίρ [air-conditioning] Mekhír Ⲙⲉϣⲓⲣ Meshir
Seven III Peret
Phamenoth		 3rd Month of Growth
iii Prt 		Rḫ Nds PꜢ due north-imn-ḥtp.west Φαμενώθ Phamenṓth Ⲡⲁⲣⲉⲙϩⲁⲧ Baramhat
8 IV Peret
Pharmuthi		 quaternary Month of Growth
iv Prt 		Rnwt PꜢ north-rnn.t Φαρμουθί [ad] Pharmouthí Ⲡⲁⲣⲙⲟⲩⲧⲉ Barmoda
Ix I Shemu
Pachons		 1st Month of Low Water
ane Šmw 		Ḫnsw PꜢ n-ḫns.w Παχών Pakhṓn Ⲡⲁϣⲟⲛⲥ Bashons
X II Shemu
Payni		 second Month of Low Water
2 Šmw 		Hnt-htj PꜢ n-in.t Παϋνί [ae] Paüní Ⲡⲁⲱⲛⲓ Baôni
Eleven 3 Shemu
Epiphi		 3rd Month of Low Water
3 Šmw 		Ipt-hmt Ipip Ἐπιφί [af] Epiphí Ⲉⲡⲓⲡ Apip
XII Four Shemu
Mesore		 quaternary Calendar month of Low Water
4 Šmw 		Opening of the Year
Wp Rnpt 		Nativity of the Sun
Mswt Rꜥ 		Μεσορή Mesorḗ Ⲙⲉⲥⲱⲣⲓ Masôri
— IntercalaryMonth
EpagomenalDays		 — Those upon the Twelvemonth
Hryw Rnpt 		ἐπαγόμεναι epagómenai Ⲡⲓⲕⲟⲩϫⲓ ⲛ̀ⲁⲃⲟⲧ Bikudji en abod

Legacy [edit]

An 11th-century Coptic calendrical icon displaying 2 months of saints

The reformed Egyptian calendar continues to be used in Egypt every bit the Coptic calendar of the Egyptian Church and by the Egyptian populace at large, particularly the fellah, to calculate the agricultural seasons. It differs only in its era, which is dated from the ascension of the Roman emperor Diocletian. Contemporary Egyptian farmers, like their aboriginal predecessors, divide the yr into three seasons: winter, summer, and inundation. It is also associated with local festivals such every bit the almanac Flooding of the Nile and the ancient Leap festival Sham el-Nessim.

The Ethiopian agenda is based on this reformed agenda simply uses Amharic names for its months and uses a dissimilar era. The French Republican Calendar was similar, simply began its yr at the autumnal equinox. British orrery maker John Gleave represented the Egyptian agenda in a reconstruction of the Antikythera mechanism.

See also [edit]

  • Egyptian chronology
  • Egyptian astronomy
  • Coptic and Ethiopian calendars

Notes [edit]

  1. ^ In the thirty years prior to the completion of the Aswan Low Dam in 1902, the flow between Egypt'due south "almanac" floods varied from 335 to 415 days,[3] with the first ascent starting as early as 15 April and as tardily every bit 23 June.[14]
  2. ^ For farther variations, see Brugsch.[32]
  3. ^ Variant representations of the day of the new moon include , ,[33] ,[34] , , , , , , ,[35] ,[36] , and ;[37] ,[38] and in the Middle Kingdom; and in later inscriptions.[39]
  4. ^ In later sources, Psḏntyw.[33]
  5. ^ Variant representations of the 24-hour interval of the starting time crescent moon include , ,[33] ,[37] (properly N11A with the moon turned 90° clockwise),[40] and .[41]
  6. ^ Variant representations of the sixth twenty-four hour period of the lunar month include ,[38] , ,[42] ,[43] , , and .[44]
  7. ^ Variant representations of the 1st-quarter day include and .[45]
  8. ^ Properly, the first sign is non an fauna jawbone

    F19

    but the rarer, similar-looking figure of a king of beasts's forepaw .[33]
  9. ^ Properly, the 2 circles

    D12

    are shrunk and placed inside the bend of the sickle

    U1

    , forming .[46] The male person figure should be human sowing seeds , which includes a bend of dots coming from the man's paw.[47]
  10. ^ Variant representations of the day of the total moon include , ,[33] , , [40]

    N13

    , and .[48]
  11. ^ Properly, N12\t1 or N12A, with the crescent moon

    N12

    turned ninety° clockwise.
  12. ^ Variant representations of the 21st twenty-four hours of the lunar month include and .[50]
  13. ^ Variant representations of the 24th solar day of the lunar calendar month include .[51]
  14. ^ Variant representations of the 27th 24-hour interval of the lunar month include .[52] D310 is a pes

    D58

    crossed past a variant of pool

    N37

    with 2[53] or 3[52] diagonal strokes across it.
  15. ^ Properly, the loaf

    X1

    and diagonal strokes

    Z4

    are shrunk and fit nether the two sides of the standard

    R12

    .
  16. ^ Other possibilities for the original basis of the agenda include comparing of a detailed tape of lunar dates against the rise of Sirius over a 40 year bridge, discounted past Neugebauer as likely to produce a agenda more accurate than the actual one;[thirteen] his own theory (discussed in a higher place) that the timing of successive floods were averaged over a few decades;[13] and the theory that the position of the solar rising was recorded over a number of years, permitting comparison of the timing of the solstices over the years. A predynastic petroglyph discovered by the University of South Carolina's expedition at Nekhen in 1986 may preserve such a record, if information technology had been moved most 10° from its original position prior to discovery.[55]
  17. ^ Information technology has been argued that the Ebers Papyrus shows a fixed calendar incorporating leap years, only this is no longer believed.[58]
  18. ^ 1460 Julian years (exactly) or Gregorian years (roughly) in modern calculations, equivalent to 1461 Egyptian ceremonious years, but apparently reckoned as 1460 civil years (1459 Julian years) by the aboriginal Egyptians themselves.[68]
  19. ^ Per O'Mara, actually ±16 years when including the other factors affecting the calculated Sothic twelvemonth.[21]
  20. ^ Using Roman dating, he said of the relevant New year's day that "when the emperor Antoninus Pius was consul of Rome for a second fourth dimension with Bruttius Praesens this same twenty-four hours coincided with the 13th 24-hour interval before the calends of August" (Latin: cum... imperatore quinque hoc anno fuit Antonino Pio Ii Bruttio Praesente Romae consulibus idem dies fuerit ante diem XII kal. Aug.).[71]
  21. ^ Meyer himself accepted the primeval date,[74] though before the Heart Chronology was shown to be more likely than the brusque or long chronologies of the Middle Due east. Parker argued for its introduction ahead of apocatastasis on the middle date based on his understanding of its evolution from a Sothic-based lunar calendar. He placed its introduction inside the range c.  2937 – c. 2821 BC, noting information technology was more than likely in the Dynasty 2 part of the range.[75] [76]
  22. ^ Specifically, the calculations are for 30°N with no aligning for clouds and an averaged corporeality of aerosols for the region. In practice, clouds or other obscurement and observational error may take shifted any of these calculated values past a few days.[72]
  23. ^ Latin: ...dues diem Xiii kal. Aug....[81]
  24. ^ Most ancient sources identify the heliacal ascent of Sirius on 19July, only Dositheus, likely source of the date of the 239BC rising, elsewhere places it on 18July,[21] as do Hephaistion of Thebes,[82] Salmasius, Zoroaster, Palladius, and Aëtius. Solinus placed information technology on the 20th; Meton and the unemended text of Censorinus's volume on the 21st; and Ptolemy on the day afterwards that.[21]
  25. ^ This seems to be the case, for example, with astronomical records of the XVIII Dynasty and its successors, including the Ebers Papyrus, which seem to take been made at Thebes rather than Heliopolis.[88]
  26. ^ Reconstructed Egyptian accentuation Phaôphi ( Φαῶφι ).[94]
  27. ^ Reconstructed Egyptian accentuation Khoíak ( Χοίακ ).[94]
  28. ^ Reconstructed Egyptian accentuation Tûbi ( Τῦβι ).[94]
  29. ^ Reconstructed Egyptian accentuation Mekheír ( Μεχείρ ).[94]
  30. ^ Reconstructed Egyptian accentuation Pharmoûthi ( Φαρμοῦθι ).[94]
  31. ^ Reconstructed Egyptian accentuation Paü̂ni ( Παῧνι ).[94]
  32. ^ Reconstructed Egyptian accentuation Epeíph ( Ἐπείφ ).[94]

References [edit]

Citations [edit]

  1. ^ Total version at Met Museum
  2. ^ "Telling Time in Ancient Egypt". www.metmuseum.org . Retrieved 2022-05-27 .
  3. ^ a b c Winlock (1940), p. 450.
  4. ^ Clagett (1995), pp. 10–11.
  5. ^ Winlock (1940).
  6. ^ a b Tetley (2014), p. 40.
  7. ^ Winlock (1940), p. 452.
  8. ^ Herodotus (1890), Macaulay (ed.), Histories, London: Macmillan, Book 2, §5 .
  9. ^ a b Tetley (2014), p. 39.
  10. ^ Winlock (1940), p. 453.
  11. ^ Clagett (1995), p. 4–5.
  12. ^ Clagett (1995), p. 33.
  13. ^ a b c Neugebauer (1939).
  14. ^ a b Parker (1950), p. 32.
  15. ^ a b c Parker (1950), p. 23.
  16. ^ a b Parker (1950), pp. 30–32.
  17. ^ a b Høyrup, p. xiii.
  18. ^ Clagett (1995), p. 3–4.
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Bibliography [edit]

  • Clagett, Marshall (1995), Aboriginal Egyptian Scientific discipline: A Source Volume, Vol. 2: Calendars, Clocks, and Astronomy, Memoirs of the APS, No. 214, Philadelphia: American Philosophical Order, ISBN9780871692146 .
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  • Grafton, Anthony Thomas; et al. (1985), "Technical Chronology and Astrological History in Varro, Censorinus, and Others", The Classical Quarterly, Vol. XXXV, No. ii , pp. 454–465 .
  • Høyrup, Jens, "A Historian's History of Ancient Egyptian Science" (PDF), Physis , a review of Clagett's Ancient Egyptian Science, Vols. I & II.
  • Jauhiainen, Heidi (2009), Do Non Celebrate Your Feast without Your Neighbors: A Study of References to Feasts and Festivals in Not-Literary Documents from Ramesside Period Deir el-Medina (PDF), Publications of the Establish for Asian and African Studies, No. x, Helsinki: University of Helsinki .
  • Krauss, Rolf; et al., eds. (2006), Ancient Egyptian Chronology, Handbook of Oriental Studies, Sect. 1, Vol. 83, Leiden: Brill .
  • Luft, Ulrich (2006), "Accented Chronology in Egypt in the First Quarter of the Second Millennium BC", Egypt and the Levant, Vol. XVI , Austrian University of Sciences Printing, pp. 309–316 .
  • Neugebauer, Otto Eduard (1939), "Die Bedeutungslosigkeit der 'Sothisperiode' für die Älteste Ägyptische Chronologie", Acta Orientalia, No. 16 , pp. 169 ff . (in German)
  • O'Mara, Patrick F. (January 2003), "Censorinus, the Sothic Bicycle, and Agenda Year One in Ancient Egypt: The Epistemological Trouble", Journal of Almost Eastern Studies, Vol. LXII, No. ane , Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 17–26 .
  • Parker, Richard Anthony (1950), The Calendars of Ancient Egypt (PDF), Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization, No. 26, Chicago: Academy of Chicago Printing .
  • Schaefer, Bradley Elliott (2000), "The Heliacal Ascension of Sirius and Ancient Egyptian Chronology", Journal for the History of Astronomy, Vol. XXXI, Pt. ii , pp. 149–155, Bibcode:2000JHA....31..149S .
  • Spalinger, Anthony (January 1995), "Some Remarks on the Epagomenal Days in Ancient Egypt", Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 54, No. i , pp. 33–47 .
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  • Vygus, Mark (2015), Centre Egyptian Dictionary (PDF) .

External links [edit]

  • Detailed data near the Egyptian calendars, including lunar cycles
  • Date Converter for Ancient Egypt
  • Calendrica Includes the Egyptian civil calendar with years in Ptolemy's Nabonassar Era (year one = 747 BC) as well every bit the Coptic, Ethiopic, and French calendars.
  • Civil, ver. 4.0, is a 25kB DOS program to convert dates in the Egyptian civil calendar to the Julian or Gregorian ones

3 5 Divided By 5,

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_calendar

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